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EXHIBIT 164

Rebbachisaurus

Rebbachisaurus garasbae

Rebbachisaurus was a Moroccan sauropod with towering back vertebrae. Its head and much of its complete silhouette remain reconstructed. [1]

Evidence profile

TWO WAYS TO PICTURE THE PAST

Compare the evidence with the familiar movie image. The illustrations are not to a shared scale.

01 / FOSSIL VIEW

The evidence in the bones

Displayed Rebbachisaurus vertebra with a tall neural spine.

Displayed vertebra identified as Rebbachisaurus at the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris. The photograph does not establish an inventory number, life stage or complete-individual identity; it is not used as a measurement of shoulder height. [1]

Displayed Rebbachisaurus vertebra · Ghedo. Public domain. Resized proportionally and converted to WebP; no anatomical edits. The downloaded Commons source already includes any uploader revisions or crops; its selected license applies.

The photograph or figure shows the credited fossil material; displayed mounts and labels can include interpretation.

02 / MOVIE-STYLE INTERPRETATION

A cinematic imagination

Artistic reconstruction of Rebbachisaurus; colors and soft tissues are illustrative.

Original cinematic interpretation of Rebbachisaurus. The type is postcranial: head, complete neck, external spine expression and missing regions require comparative reconstruction. Colors, lighting and scenery are artistic choices; this is not directly observed behavior. Lighting, coloration and scenery are artistic choices. This image does not document a fossil locality or behavior.

Original artwork · artistic interpretation.

Scientific view: source-informed reconstruction, credited paleoart or specimen-based imagery. Movie-style view: Original artistic interpretation. Reconstructions involve uncertainty.

PERIODLate Cretaceous[2]
DIETHerbivoreEvidence and uncertainty in the dossier
TOTAL LENGTHSee the dossierEstimate scope matters
FOSSILS FOUNDMorocco[2]
CompareRead the dossierView the sources

MEET THE ANIMAL

Meet Rebbachisaurus

Rebbachisaurus was a large plant-eating sauropod from Morocco. Its incomplete skeleton has inspired whole-body reconstructions, including possible sail-like covering above the back. A proposed sail is an interpretation of the living outline, rather than directly preserved skin or proof of a mating display. [D5]

The associated type material came from Gara Sbaa in southeastern Morocco's Kem Kem deposits. Geological research places it in a Late Cretaceous river-and-delta system. That setting describes the landscape and processes surrounding burial, not an exclusively aquatic lifestyle for the animal itself. [D2]

Its back vertebrae were exceptionally tall. One described vertebra reaches 1.45 metres in total height. This is the dimension of a bone, rather than a direct measurement of shoulder height. The external covering and complete body silhouette still require restoration around the skeleton. [D1]

The type has no teeth. Isolated Moroccan teeth may be identifiable as belonging to its broader dinosaur family, but that does not securely assign them to Rebbachisaurus garasbae. Missing mouth anatomy limits detailed feeding claims, including wear patterns, particular plant foods and the shape of every tooth. [D3]

PREHISTORIC ANIMAL DOSSIER

A life in profile.

The animal, the evidence, and the questions still open.

The Kem Kem fossils document a large plant-eater in a river-delta system. Isolated teeth from those deposits require separate attribution rather than automatically supplying its missing mouth. [D2] [D3]

Profile scope: Genus profile centered on Rebbachisaurus garasbae and its associated Gara Sbaa type material. Argentine “Rebbachisaurus tessonei” is the separate genus Limaysaurus. [D1] [D4]

Time
Late Cretaceous
Fossil locations in this exhibit
Morocco
How to read the evidence

Source supported identifies a description documented by the cited source. Inferred marks a reconstruction or functional estimate. Debated marks competing interpretations. Not established means the sources reviewed for this dossier do not support a firm conclusion; it does not mean a behavior never occurred.

A size reference is an estimate, not a population range. Nesting evidence does not by itself establish courtship, mate choice, or lifelong pairing.

Body length

Inferred

About 20 m; broad museum reference

The museum supplies this reconstruction reference without a specimen, maturity assessment or calculation. It is not a measured complete type, an adult maximum or a verified species range. [D5]

Body mass

Inferred

About 7.9–12.0 tonnes; alternative type models

The osteological abstract estimates the holotype at 7,915–12,015 kg from vertebral and humeral measurements. These are alternative estimates for one incomplete individual, with unverified maturity, rather than a population range. [D1]

Diet

Inferred

Plant feeding inferred; teeth uncertain

The museum identifies herbivory, but the holotype lacks teeth. Isolated Moroccan teeth referred to Rebbachisauridae do not securely supply this species’ mouth, feeding wear or particular eaten plants. [D5] [D3]

Habitat & fossil setting

Source supported

Cenomanian Kem Kem river-delta deposits

The associated type came from Gara Sbaa, southeastern Morocco, within the Cenomanian Kem Kem Group. Sediments record rivers and a delta system; fossils do not establish that the animal lived exclusively in water. [D2]

Movement

Inferred

Quadrupedal sauropod reconstruction

Preserved shoulder, arm and axial bones support a large four-legged sauropod reconstruction. Missing feet and body regions require comparison; walking speed and a particular habitual neck angle are not measured. [D1]

Distinctive anatomy

Source supported

Exceptionally tall dorsal vertebrae

A described back vertebra reaches 1.45 m in total height. This measures a bone, not shoulder height. The external outline and any sail-like covering above those bones remain interpretations. [D1]

Reproduction & life together

Reproduction & nesting

Not established

Not established here

Focused searches did not establish securely assigned eggs, nests, embryos, clutch size, incubation or parental care. Broader sauropod egg evidence is insufficient to identify this genus.

Courtship & mating

Not established

Not established here

Tall vertebral spines do not identify sexes, mate choice or display behavior. The museum’s possible sail is a reconstruction hypothesis, not preserved courtship evidence. [D5]

Social behavior

Not established

Not established here

The associated type represents an incomplete individual. Isolated Kem Kem remains do not demonstrate an organized herd, family group or synchronized behavior. [D2]

Dossier research & sources

Sources and inspection notes for the claims in this profile.

  1. Osteology of Rebbachisaurus garasbae Lavocat, 1954, a diplodocoid (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) from the early Late Cretaceous-aged Kem Kem beds of southeastern MoroccoJournal of Vertebrate Paleontology; Wilson & Allain (2015) · Accessed 2026-10-02Publisher abstract/indexed abstract inspected: type postcranial anatomy, 1.45 m dorsal vertebra and alternative holotype mass estimates; full article not obtained. · Inspected: abstract
  2. Geology and paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Kem Kem Group of eastern MoroccoZooKeys; Ibrahim and colleagues (2020) · Accessed 2026-10-02Original full text through Europe PMC XML inspected: Gara Sbaa type locality, associated postcranial remains, Cenomanian stratigraphy and fluvial/deltaic depositional setting. · Inspected: page
  3. Teeth from the Middle Jurassic of Morocco reveal the oldest turiasaurian sauropods from AfricaActa Palaeontologica Polonica; Woodruff and colleagues (2025) · Accessed 2026-10-02Original ten-page PDF inspected, especially pp.416–417: the Rebbachisaurus holotype lacks teeth; isolated Moroccan teeth may be assigned to Rebbachisauridae without diagnosing R. garasbae. · Inspected: page
  4. Critical reappraisal of a putative dicraeosaurid sauropod dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of Gondwana and a revised view of diplodocoid evolutionary relationships and biogeographyJournal of Systematic Palaeontology; Mannion & Moore (2025) · Accessed 2026-10-02Publisher/indexed original text inspected: R. garasbae remains recognized; R. tamesnensis is generically undiagnostic and a nomen dubium, with no overlapping material securely tying it to the Moroccan species; local full PDF unavailable. · Inspected: excerpt
  5. RebbachisaurusNatural History Museum, London · Accessed 2026-10-02Current museum page inspected: unscoped 20 m length and herbivore interpretation, incomplete skeleton and speculative sail. Its older Early Cretaceous date is superseded here by inspected geological research. · Inspected: page

THE STORY IN THE FOSSILS

Meet Rebbachisaurus.

The missing mouth matters: the holotype has no teeth. Family-level identification of isolated teeth does not establish the dentition or feeding behavior of this named species. [3]

A second historical name, Rebbachisaurus tamesnensis, remains diagnostically uncertain in the 2025 reappraisal. Its widely scattered material is not used to expand this Moroccan species’ range. [4]

A note on scale and time

The dossier identifies the scope of each reference estimate. A mount, an individual fossil and a species-wide adult range are different measurements. Comparison metrics remain unavailable where adult scope has not been established. Unknown does not mean zero.

Sources & editorial notes

Sources support the stated claims and scopes. Refer to the evidence notes for uncertainty.

  1. Osteology of Rebbachisaurus garasbae Lavocat, 1954, a diplodocoid (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) from the early Late Cretaceous-aged Kem Kem beds of southeastern MoroccoJournal of Vertebrate Paleontology; Wilson & Allain (2015) · Accessed 2026-10-02Publisher abstract/indexed abstract inspected: type postcranial anatomy, 1.45 m dorsal vertebra and alternative holotype mass estimates; full article not obtained. · Inspected: abstract
  2. Geology and paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Kem Kem Group of eastern MoroccoZooKeys; Ibrahim and colleagues (2020) · Accessed 2026-10-02Original full text through Europe PMC XML inspected: Gara Sbaa type locality, associated postcranial remains, Cenomanian stratigraphy and fluvial/deltaic depositional setting. · Inspected: page
  3. Teeth from the Middle Jurassic of Morocco reveal the oldest turiasaurian sauropods from AfricaActa Palaeontologica Polonica; Woodruff and colleagues (2025) · Accessed 2026-10-02Original ten-page PDF inspected, especially pp.416–417: the Rebbachisaurus holotype lacks teeth; isolated Moroccan teeth may be assigned to Rebbachisauridae without diagnosing R. garasbae. · Inspected: page
  4. Critical reappraisal of a putative dicraeosaurid sauropod dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of Gondwana and a revised view of diplodocoid evolutionary relationships and biogeographyJournal of Systematic Palaeontology; Mannion & Moore (2025) · Accessed 2026-10-02Publisher/indexed original text inspected: R. garasbae remains recognized; R. tamesnensis is generically undiagnostic and a nomen dubium, with no overlapping material securely tying it to the Moroccan species; local full PDF unavailable. · Inspected: excerpt
  5. RebbachisaurusNatural History Museum, London · Accessed 2026-10-02Current museum page inspected: unscoped 20 m length and herbivore interpretation, incomplete skeleton and speculative sail. Its older Early Cretaceous date is superseded here by inspected geological research. · Inspected: page

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